Trapped air prevents heat loss by conduction and convection. Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature by infrared radiation.

Heat pumps work through the same heat transfer process and largely the same equipment as that used in air conditioners. Air conditioners use a closed loop refrigerant system to remove heat from an ...

“The heating side models the transfer of heat from moist air through a frost layer, if present, into the heat exchanger. The frost models build and melt the frost layer in line with da Silva et al.